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  • br Acknowledgements K P H and

    2018-11-03


    Acknowledgements K.P.H. and E.M.T.D. are Faculty Research Associates of the Population Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin, which is supported by a grant, 5-R24-HD042849, from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. This research was supported by grants R21-AA023322 and R21-AA020588from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, and by the Russell Sage Foundation Visiting Scholar program.
    Introduction Humans are by nature social beings. The development of their social skills and the maturation of the thiostrepton continue well into the twenties (Crone and Güroglu, 2013; Dumontheil et al., 2010; Tamnes et al., 2010; Sowell et al., 2001). Late adolescence and early adulthood can therefore be viewed as a developmental stage (Arnett, 2007), rather than a period of completed development without changes (for an overview of studies, see (Blakemore, 2012). The changes in social behavior occur in parallel with structural and functional maturation of the brain (Crone and Dahl, 2012; Steinberg, 2005) in a complex interdependent way (McClure et al., 2004; Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006), where a changing social context shapes social cognition and the brain (Blakemore, 2012; Nelson et al., 2005), and developing cognitions and underlying neural circuitry allow for more complex relationships that further shape cognitions and underlying neural circuitry. While several studies investigated social decision making in children, young adolescents and adults, data on the developmental processes from late adolescence into adulthood are still scarce (Frith and Frith, 2010). We therefore sought to investigate the development of social interactions in this particular group at the transition between adolescent and adult life.
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    Acknowledgments
    Introduction Action selection during adolescence is frequently sub-optimal (Casey et al., 2008; Figner et al., 2009). This promotes potentially harmful risk-taking, often with adverse outcomes for both the individual and society (Steinberg, 2005). It is therefore important to understand the neural mechanisms that underlie suboptimal action selection during adolescence. To that end, this study investigated reinforcement-dependent potentiation in perceptual areas to visual cues that predicted either a rewarding or threatening outcome in an instrumental conditioning task. Reinforcement-dependent potentiation to these cues was indexed by two perceptual event-related potentials (ERPs) that have been reliably implicated in the processing of motivationally salient stimuli, the N170 and Late Positive Potential (LPP) (e.g., Blau et al., 2007; Cuthbert et al., 2000). Moreover, since there are considerable gender differences in brain maturation (DeBellis et al., 2001; Lenroot et al., 2007) and risk-taking behaviours (Byrnes et al., 1999) throughout adolescence, an exploratory aim of this study was to examine gender-related differences in the reinforcement-dependent modulation of perceptual processes and in how these processes may relate to sensation seeking and risk-taking behaviours during adolescence. Developmental differences in reinforcement-dependent potentiation, i.e., value-related encoding in perceptual areas, could be an important mechanism underlying increased risk-taking behaviours during adolescence. This is because differences in value-related encoding in perceptual areas could evoke a differential cascade of events important for action selection, preparation, and implementation (Hegdé and Felleman, 2007; Freese and Amaral, 2005; Lamme and Roelfsema, 2000; Lang and Bradley, 2010; Sugase et al., 1999; Vuilleumier, 2005). Consistent with this idea, we recently found that adolescents had greater reinforcement-dependent potentiation of the N170 to visual cues that predicted a threatening outcome compared to young adults (Levita et al., 2015). This finding raised three interesting questions. First, if adolescents show enhanced potentiation of N170 amplitudes to cues that predict threatening outcomes, why are risk-taking behaviours so prevalent during adolescence? Second, how does enhanced N170 potentiation to cues that predict threatening outcomes during adolescence fit with evidence showing that adolescents are highly motivated by rewards (e.g., Ernst et al., 2011; Ernst et al., 2006; Steinberg, 2008; Van Leijenhorst et al., 2010)? Third, how does reinforcement-dependent potentiation of ERPs involved in processing rewarding and threatening outcomes change during the course of adolescence? This study was designed to address these questions by examining reinforcement-dependent potentiation of ERPs to visual cues that predicted either a rewarding or threatening outcome during adolescence. Reinforcement-dependent potentiation in the current study was examined using early (N170) and late (LPP) perceptual ERPs that are modulated by motivationally salient stimuli (Levita et al., 2015; Keil et al., 2002; Rellecke et al., 2013; Sabatinelli et al., 2007; Schupp et al., 2000).